LE COLLÈGE DE FRANCE

Collège de France

vysoká škola v Paříži

the Collège de France

   Founded by François I in 1530, located close to the Sorbonne in Paris, the Collège de France is an academy of learning which is outside the normal education system. It provides a programme of lectures and seminars conducted by some of the greatest academics in France, but open to the public. It does not deliver any degrees or diplomas. Members are elected for life from among leading academics, and the title Professeur au Collège de France is the highest distinction possible in French academia.

общ. Коллеж де Франс (учебное заведение в Париже)

collège [kɔlεʒ]

   a. ( = école) collège (d'enseignement secondaire) secondary school (Brit) junior high school (US)

• collège (d'enseignement) technique technical school

• collège d'enseignement général et professionnel (Canadian) ≈ sixth-form college (Brit), ≈ junior college (US)

   b. (Politics, Religion) ( = assemblée) college

• collège électoral electoral college

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The term collège refers to the type of state secondary school French children attend between the ages of 11 and 15 (ie after « école primaire » and before « lycée »). Collège covers the school years « sixième », « cinquième », « quatrième » and « troisième ». At the end of « troisième », pupils take the examination known as the « brevet des collèges ». → LYCÉE

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nom masculin

1) ( école)

2) ( assemblée) college

•

- collège d'enseignement technique

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1) (= école) school, secondary school

2) (= assemblée) body

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collège nm

1 ( école) secondary school GB, junior high school US;

2 ( assemblée) college; collège électoral Pol electoral college.

collège d'enseignement secondaire, CES secondary school GB, junior high school US; collège d'enseignement technique, CET technical secondary school in France.

ⓘ Collège The school for pupils aged 11-15. The curriculum and organization are nationally prescribed.

[kɔlɛʒ] nom masculin

1. ÉDUCATION school

collège d'enseignement secondaire → link=CES CES

2. [corps constitué] college

3. ADMINISTRATION body

This place of learning near the Sorbonne holds public lectures given by prominent academics and specialists. It is not a university and does not confer degrees, although it is controlled by the Ministry of Education.

2. (groupement) колле́гия;

1) Oberschule f

2)

collège

collège [kɔlεʒ]

Substantif masculin

école Collège neutre, ≈ Realschule féminin; Beispiel: aller au collège auf das Collège gehen; Beispiel: Collège de France universitätsähnliche Lehranstalt, deren Vorlesungen von jedermann besucht werden können, an der jedoch keine Diplome vergeben werden

m

1) коллегия

2) коллеж (среднее учебное заведение во Франции)

   Middle school, the intermediate level in French school education between primary school and lycée. For more details see Primary and Secondary Education in France.

SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology, Photography, film and optics

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At the age of 19 Marey went to Paris to study medicine, becoming particularly interested in the problems of the circulation of the blood. In an early communication to the Académie des Sciences he described a much improved device for recording the pulse, the sphygmograph, in which the beats were recorded on a smoked plate. Most of his subsequent work was concerned with methods of recording movement: to study the movement of the horse, he used pneumatic sensors on each hoof to record traces on a smoked drum; this device became known as the Marey recording tambour. His attempts to study the wing movements of a bird in flight in the same way met with limited success since the recording system interfered with free movement. Reading in 1878 of Muybridge's work in America using sequence photography to study animal movement, Marey considered the use of photography himself. In 1882 he developed an idea first used by the astronomer Janssen: a camera in which a series of exposures could be made on a circular photographic plate. Marey's "photographic gun" was rifle shaped and could expose twelve pictures in approximately one second on a circular plate. With this device he was able to study wing movements of birds in free flight. The camera was limited in that it could record only a small number of images, and in the summer of 1882 he developed a new camera, when the French government gave him a grant to set up a physiological research station on land provided by the Parisian authorities near the Porte d'Auteuil. The new design used a fixed plate, on which a series of images were recorded through a rotating shutter. Looking rather like the results provided by a modern stroboscope flash device, the images were partially superimposed if the subject was slow moving, or separated if it was fast. His human subjects were dressed all in white and moved against a black background. An alternative was to dress the subject in black, with highly reflective strips and points along limbs and at joints, to produce a graphic record of the relationships of the parts of the body during action. A one-second-sweep timing clock was included in the scene to enable the precise interval between exposures to be assessed. The fixed-plate cameras were used with considerable success, but the number of individual records on each plate was still limited. With the appearance of Eastman's Kodak roll-film camera in France in September 1888, Marey designed a new camera to use the long rolls of paper film. He described the new apparatus to the Académie des Sciences on 8 October 1888, and three weeks later showed a band of images taken with it at the rate of 20 per second. This camera and its subsequent improvements were the first true cinematographic cameras. The arrival of Eastman's celluloid film late in 1889 made Marey's camera even more practical, and for over a decade the Physiological Research Station made hundreds of sequence studies of animals and humans in motion, at rates of up to 100 pictures per second. Marey pioneered the scientific study of movement using film cameras, introducing techniques of time-lapse, frame-by-frame and slow-motion analysis, macro-and micro-cinematography, superimposed timing clocks, studies of airflow using smoke streams, and other methods still in use in the 1990s. Appointed Professor of Natural History at the Collège de France in 1870, he headed the Institut Marey founded in 1898 to continue these studies. After Marey's death in 1904, the research continued under the direction of his associate Lucien Bull, who developed many new techniques, notably ultra-high-speed cinematography.

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See also: Demenÿ, Georges

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SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology

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After studies at colleges in Limoges and later in Paris, Arsonval became a doctor of medicine in 1877. In 1882 the Collège de France established a laboratory of biophysics with Arsonval as Director, and he was Professor from 1894.

His most outstanding scientific contributions were in the field of biological applications of electricity. His interest in muscle currents led to a series of inventions to assist in research, including the moving-coil galvanometer. In 1881 he made a significant improvement to the galvanometer by reversing the magnetic elements. It had been usual to suspend a compass needle in the centre of a large, stationary coil, but Arsonval's invention was to suspend a small, light coil between the poles of a powerful fixed magnet. This simple arrangement was independent of the earth's magnetic field and insensitive to vibration. A great increase in sensitivity was achieved by attaching a mirror to the coil in order to reflect a spot of light. For bacterial-research purposes he designed the first constant-temperature incubator controlled by electricity. His experiments on the effects of high-frequency, low-voltage alternating currents on animals led to the first high-frequency heat-therapy unit being established in 1892, and later to methods of physiotherapy becoming a professional discipline.

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SUBJECT AREA: Steam and internal combustion engines

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Sadi was the eldest son of Lazare Carnot, who was prominent as one of Napoleon's military and civil advisers. Sadi was born in the Palais du Petit Luxembourg and grew up during the Napoleonic wars. He was tutored by his father until in 1812, at the minimum age of 16, he entered the Ecole Polytechnique to study stress analysis, mechanics, descriptive geometry and chemistry. He organized the students to fight against the allies at Vincennes in 1814. He left the Polytechnique that October and went to the Ecole du Génie at Metz as a student second lieutenant. While there, he wrote several scientific papers, but on the Restoration in 1815 he was regarded with suspicion because of the support his father had given Napoleon. In 1816, on completion of his studies, Sadi became a second lieutenant in the Metz engineering regiment and spent his time in garrison duty, drawing up plans of fortifications. He seized the chance to escape from this dull routine in 1819 through an appointment to the army general staff corps in Paris, where he took leave of absence on half pay and began further courses of study at the Sorbonne, Collège de France, Ecole des Mines and the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. He was inter-ested in industrial development, political economy, tax reform and the fine arts.

It was not until 1821 that he began to concentrate on the steam-engine, and he soon proposed his early form of the Carnot cycle. He sought to find a general solution to cover all types of steam-engine, and reduced their operation to three basic stages: an isothermal expansion as the steam entered the cylinder; an adiabatic expansion; and an isothermal compression in the condenser. In 1824 he published his Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu, which was well received at the time but quickly forgotten. In it he accepted the caloric theory of heat but pointed out the impossibility of perpetual motion. His main contribution to a correct understanding of a heat engine, however, lay in his suggestion that power can be produced only where there exists a temperature difference due "not to an actual consumption of caloric but to its transportation from a warm body to a cold body". He used the analogy of a water-wheel with the water falling around its circumference. He proposed the true Carnot cycle with the addition of a final adiabatic compression in which motive power was con sumed to heat the gas to its original incoming temperature and so closed the cycle. He realized the importance of beginning with the temperature of the fire and not the steam in the boiler. These ideas were not taken up in the study of thermodynartiics until after Sadi's death when B.P.E.Clapeyron discovered his book in 1834.

In 1824 Sadi was recalled to military service as a staff captain, but he resigned in 1828 to devote his time to physics and economics. He continued his work on steam-engines and began to develop a kinetic theory of heat. In 1831 he was investigating the physical properties of gases and vapours, especially the relationship between temperature and pressure. In June 1832 he contracted scarlet fever, which was followed by "brain fever". He made a partial recovery, but that August he fell victim to a cholera epidemic to which he quickly succumbed.

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SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology

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Laënnec commenced his medical career assisting his uncle, a physician of Nantes, Brittany. On moving to Paris he studied under Corvisart, Napoleon's friend and personal physician, and Dupuytren. Appointed Physician to the Necker Hospital in 1816, his difficulties in examining an obese patient led him to make a roll of paper and, placing one end on the patient's chest and his ear to the other, he found that he could hear the heart sounds much more clearly; although auscultation had been practised in medicine since the time of Hippocrates (fl. 400 BC), its inconvenience and distastefulness made the stethoscope an instrument which soon gained wide acceptance. As a consequence, a large number of new auditory phenomena were reported in the immediately ensuing years. In his book, published in 1819, he described the instrument as "a cylinder of wood an inch and a half in diameter and a foot long, perforated by a bore three lines wide and hollowed out into a funnel shape at one of its extremities".

By now he had contracted tuberculosis and retired to Brittany to recover. In 1822 he accepted the Chair of Medicine in the College of France, but he suffered a relapse and died four years later, ironically of the same disease that his invention had done so much to facilitate the diagnosis of.

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gener. Collège de France (учебное заведение в Париже)

SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology

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Despite coming from modest circumstances, Petty had an illustrious career, which started with college in France at the age of 13, followed by service on a small coastal ship and then studies at the medical schools of Ley den and Paris. In 1651 he was appointed Professor of Anatomy at Oxford, and by this time was attending meetings of fellow scientists and philosophers which culminated in the founding of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge. In 1652 Petty was sent to Ireland as PhysicianGeneral for the Army; he was soon involved in many matters of an intellectual and experimental nature. He took responsibility for the first proper survey of the country and produced maps and an Irish atlas, Hiberniae Delineatio, published in 1685. His investigations into political economics had a profound effect on seventeenth-century thinking. Of equal importance were his radical proposals for ship design; he presented many papers on naval architecture to the Royal Society and at one time suggested floating harbours similar to the Mulberry harbours of nearly three centuries later. In 1662 he built the pioneer catamaran Invention II (described at the time as a double-bottomed ship!), which was capable of lifting 5 tons of cargo.

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SUBJECT AREA: Broadcasting, Electronics and information technology

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Zworykin studied engineering at the Institute of Technology in St Petersburg under Boris Rosing, assisting the latter with his early experiments with television. After graduating in 1912, he spent a time doing X-ray research at the Collège de France in Paris before returning to join the Russian Marconi Company, initially in St Petersburg and then in Moscow. On the outbreak of war in 1917, he joined the Russian Army Signal Corps, but when the war ended in the chaos of the Revolution he set off on his travels, ending up in the USA, where he joined the Westinghouse Corporation. There, in 1923, he filed the first of many patents for a complete system of electronic television, including one for an all-electronic scanning pick-up tube that he called the iconoscope. In 1924 he became a US citizen and invented the kinescope, a hard-vacuum cathode ray tube (CRT) for the display of television pictures, and the following year he patented a camera tube with a mosaic of photoelectric elements and gave a demonstration of still-picture TV. In 1926 he was awarded a PhD by the University of Pittsburgh and in 1928 he was granted a patent for a colour TV system.

In 1929 he embarked on a tour of Europe to study TV developments; on his return he joined the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) as Director of the Electronics Research Group, first at Camden and then Princeton, New Jersey. Securing a budget to develop an improved CRT picture tube, he soon produced a kinescope with a hard vacuum, an indirectly heated cathode, a signal-modulation grid and electrostatic focusing. In 1933 an improved iconoscope camera tube was produced, and under his direction RCA went on to produce other improved types of camera tube, including the image iconoscope, the orthicon and image orthicon and the vidicon. The secondary-emission effect used in many of these tubes was also used in a scintillation radiation counter. In 1941 he was responsible for the development of the first industrial electron microscope, but for most of the Second World War he directed work concerned with radar, aircraft fire-control and TV-guided missiles.

After the war he worked for a time on high-speed memories and medical electronics, becoming Vice-President and Technical Consultant in 1947. He "retired" from RCA and was made an honorary vice-president in 1954, but he retained an office and continued to work there almost up until his death; he also served as Director of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research from 1954 until 1962.

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See also: Baird, John Logie; Farnsworth, Philo Taylor; Jenkins, Charles Francis

vysoká škola v Paříži

Collège de France

Мерло-понті, Морис (1908, Рошфор-сюр-Мер - 1961) - франц. філософ; один з головних представників феноменології, теоретичні погляди якого склалися під впливом Гуссерля, Гайдеггера, Сартра та емпіричної психології. Освіту отримав у Вищій нормальній школі. Перед Другою світовою війною викладав філософію й психологію у ліцеях; під час війни служив у франц. армії; потому - проф. у Ліонському ун-ті, Сорбонні та "College de France". Був співредактором (разом із Сартром та де Бовуар) часопису "Le Temps Modernes". Його теоретичні пошуки були підпорядковані обґрунтуванню філософської ідеї про те, що сприйняття є первинними у людському досвіді і визначають спосіб "буття у світі" людського суб'єкта, отож сприйняття світу є самодостатнім процесом (sui generis), який логічно передує поділові на суб'єкт та об'єкт. Ця ідея спричинилася не тільки до поглиблення феноменологічної редукції та інтенціонального аналізу Гуссерля у напрямі подолання традиційного дуалізму дух - тіло, а й уточнення гайдеггерівського Dassein ("Буття-тут") у світлі вироблення онтології тілесності. В ході критичного дослідження сучасних йому психологічних теорій сприйняття, головним чином біхевіоризму та гештальтпсихології, Μ. -П. дійшов висновку, що людський досвід не є закритою, суто приватною сферою, а становить спосіб буття у світі, який не можна звести до чистої свідомості. Онтологічне трактування сприйняття покладено в основу його версії феноменології, котру він розробляв у "Феноменології сприйняття" (1945). Однією з найбільш прикметних характеристик цієї феноменології є теорія М.-П. про роль людського тіла у сприйнятті світу. Він стверджує, що головні характеристики сприйняття виводяться із особливостей людської тілесності; людське тіло ототожнюється з безпосередньою присутністю людини, позначаючи змістовний "центр" людської ситуації буття у світі. Метою феноменологічного підходу М.-П. стає остаточне подолання класичної дихотомії суб'єкта та об'єкта за допомогою розкриття метафізичного змісту тілесності. Він доводить необґрунтованість у попередній філософській традиції зведення людського тіла до об'єкта, розгортаючи динаміку осмислення тіла як "живого". Виявлення ознак "живого тіла" надає людському існуванню надприродного, екзистенційного та метафізичного значення. Згідно з М.-П., тіло є "нашим якорем у світі"; саме воно наділяє світ якістю бути горизонтом досвіду. У праці "Видиме і невидиме" (опубл. 1971 р.) М.-П., намагаючись надати своїм феноменологічним розвідкам онтологічного обґрунтування, використовує поняття "плоті" (la chair) (невідоме класичній філософії); для її визначення стає доцільним старий термін "стихія" (у тому сенсі, коли йдеться про стихію води, повітря, землі та вогню як про тілесний принцип, що визначає форму буття). М.-П. ототожнює плоть із першоосновою світу, що породжує як світ, так і суб'єкт; тому її не можна звести ані до матеріальної, ані до духовної субстанції; саме у ній сконцентрована метафізична напруга живого тіла та світу. Для соціально-філософських поглядів М.-П. характерним є перехід від прихильності до ортодоксального марксизму (на початковому етапі творчості) до відмови від тези про односпрямовану логіку історії (оперту на суспільно-економічний побут) і, зрештою, до переконаності в існуванні множинності соціальних тенденцій та активної ролі людини в їхньому спрямуванні.

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Осн. тв.: "Структура поведінки" (1942); "Феноменологія сприйняття", (1945); "Гуманізм і терор" (1947); "Похвала філософії" (1953); "Первинність сприйняття" (1964); "Видиме і невидиме" (1971).